Europe in Transition: From the Medieval World to the Early Modern Age
Between the 15th and 16th centuries, Europe changed the way it thought, created, and explored. Trade, Humanism, the Renaissance, science, and navigation opened a new historical era.
1. Europe in the 15th century: a continent in transition
At the end of the Middle Ages, Europe grew slowly and remained a largely rural continent. But long-distance trade, cities, and contact with the East paved the way for the Early Modern Age.
“In the lands of the East, spices abound—such as pepper and ginger—as well as other rare and very valuable goods not found in Europe. Merchants travel great distances to obtain them, for they are highly prized both for their flavor and for their value in trade. Moreover, these regions possess gold, precious stones, and silks of great quality. The cities are wealthy and full of markets where products from many different places are sold. All of this shows the great riches of these lands and the importance of the trade routes that connect them.”
The Book of the Marvels of the World (adaptation). Circa 1298
Check
- Population: slow growth; recent crises still felt.
- Estates-based society: nobility and clergy / peasantry and bourgeoisie.
- Economy: agrarian base and guild craft production.
- Luxury trade: silk, spices, and porcelain.
- Cities: markets and the merchant bourgeoisie grow.
2. Humanism: a new way of thinking
Humanism placed the human being and the capacity to reason at the center. Classical texts were recovered, education was valued, and ideas spread thanks to the printing press, academies, and universities.
Key ideas of Humanism (very clear)
- Anthropocentrism: the human being as a central focus (without “erasing” religion).
- Reason and observation: valuing evidence and argument, not just repetition.
- The Classics: Greco-Roman works are studied (language, philosophy, history).
- Education: learning is seen as a tool to improve society.
- Vernacular languages: texts are written in local languages (Castilian, French, Italian…).
“Education and knowledge are the best guides for living wisely... Ignorance is humanity’s greatest misfortune. Many prefer not to think and to accept what others tell them. But true learning is born from study, reading, and reflection. Only those who think for themselves can live in a more just and free way.”
Challenge: explain in 2 sentences why “looking to the past” (the Classics) can help create new ideas.
Concept map of humanist thought
“I have not given you, Adam, a fixed place or a definite form, so that you may choose your own destiny. Other beings have a determined nature; you, by contrast, can decide who you wish to be. You can fall to the lowest level or rise to the highest, according to your will.”
Guided activity: commentary on a humanist text (step by step)
- Identify: is it a religious, political, or educational text? Justify.
- Ideas: what is the source? and the author? and the date?
- Ideas: what is the text about?
- Ideas: write 2 main ideas from the excerpt.
- Concepts: which humanist ideas appear?
- Concepts: how does it relate to the period?
- Concepts: Debate: is it more dangerous not to know, or not to want to think?
Activity: Humanism Detectives
Goal: identify humanist ideas in two sources and compare their authors using critical thinking.
The teacher enters saying:
“Europe is changing… but we don’t know why. We need detectives to discover what new ideas are appearing.”
You work in pairs. Each pair receives the two texts (Pico and Erasmus).
- 🟢 Underline in each text one idea about freedom.
- 🔵 Underline one idea about education or knowledge.
- 🟠 Underline one idea that breaks with medieval ways of thinking.
- What main idea does Pico defend?
- What main idea does Erasmus defend?
- How are they similar?
- How are they different?
“A medieval group accuses these authors of being dangerous because they make people think too much.”
- Are they really dangerous?
- Why might their ideas have caused resistance in their own time?
- Do you think today someone could fear people thinking too much?
3–4 brief contributions are collected.
Write on the board:
“Humanism did not destroy Europe. It made it think.”
Check
Which statement best describes Humanism?
“Humanism was not only a cultural style, but a way of studying: reading, comparing manuscripts, looking for errors, debating, and improving knowledge...”
Activity: explain how this way of studying differs from “memorizing without discussion”. (Teaching synthesis based on textbooks on the History of European Culture).
3. The Renaissance: a new art (and a new way of seeing)
The Renaissance emerged in Italy and drew inspiration from Classical Antiquity. It sought beauty, proportion, and harmony. Patrons (wealthy families, popes, princes) financed artists to display prestige and power.
- Classical inspiration: columns, pediments, round arches, domes.
- Proportion and symmetry: buildings “scaled to the human measure”.
- Perspective: representing depth (especially in painting).
- Naturalism: more realistic bodies and faces; interest in anatomy.
- Patronage: art as political and social prestige.
“Beauty is born from harmony and proportion between the parts.”
Learning to look: compare (medieval vs. Renaissance)
- Form: do vertical lines (height) or horizontal lines (balance) dominate?
- Decoration: very elaborate or more “ordered”?
- Elements: pointed arch (Gothic) or round arch (classical)?
- Message: does it impose fear / mystery or convey calm / rationality?
Suggested final product: a comparative table of 6 items (2 columns) with a 3-line conclusion.
While you watch, write down 3 words: classical · proportion · patronage.
Challenge: in one of the works, find a “vanishing line” or an element of symmetry.
Patrons financed artists because art was “advertising” for their prestige: palaces, churches, portraits, and monumental works.
- Who could be a patron? wealthy families, princes, popes, cities.
- What did they gain? fame, remembrance, political legitimacy, and social prestige.
Mini-task: “You are a patron” (creativity + history)
Commission a work: choose a type (palace, church, statue, painting), a style (classical, sober, ornate), and write:
- What you want people to think about you.
- What symbols you will include (coats of arms, saints, mythology, virtues…).
- An 8-word “slogan” for your work.
Check (30 seconds)
Which idea best defines the Renaissance?
If you value observation and study (Humanism), it becomes easier for new theories and methods to appear (Science). In block 4 we will look at Copernicus, Vesalius, cartography, and technology.
4. Advances in science and technology
The Early Modern Age promoted a different way of knowing: observing, measuring, and testing. At the same time, improvements in instruments (compass, astrolabe, nautical charts) and ships (caravel) made longer voyages possible.
From “accepting” to “testing”: a new scientific attitude
- Observation: looking closely at nature (the sky, the human body, plants…).
- Measurement: numbers, tables, instruments.
- Experiment: testing an idea to see if it works.
- Dissemination: books and printing → ideas circulate faster.
He proposed that the Earth revolves around the Sun (heliocentrism). It was not accepted immediately, but it opened a major shift in astronomy.
“It is not the heavens that turn each day; it is we who turn.”
He revolutionized anatomy by studying the body through direct observation and detailed drawings.
“I have described the body as it appears to the eye, not as books repeat it.”
Instruments that changed travel
It points to magnetic north: it helps sailors navigate without seeing the coast.
It calculates latitude from the height of the Sun/stars.
More useful maps for routes: portolan charts and atlases.
Projections help represent the Earth. In navigation, this changed route planning.
Critical thinking question: which areas of the world “seem” larger?
Look at Greenland, Europe, and Africa. Do you think the map shows real size equally? Why might a projection useful for navigation be preferred even if it distorts areas?
The “Scientific Revolution” was not a single day: it was a process. The key is the change of method: from authority to evidence.
Task: write an “Before… / Now…” sentence (e.g., “Before X was believed by tradition; now it is tested through observation”).
Match: instrument → what it is used for
Select the correct function and click “Check”.
5. Portuguese explorations: toward the sea route to India
Portugal launched a maritime project to reach Asia by sailing around Africa. Step by step, it explored the coast, improved navigation, and opened new trade routes. In 1498 Vasco da Gama reached India.
Why did Portugal explore?
- Trade: obtain spices and goods with fewer intermediaries.
- Routes: find a maritime alternative to the Mediterranean.
- Geographical advantage: Atlantic coastline and seafaring experience.
- Political drive: support from the monarchy and figures such as Prince Henry the Navigator.
Timeline (very visual)
Key idea: progress is step by step (coasts, stopovers, maps, experience).
“We found great markets and goods; and we understood that the voyage could bring Portugal wealth and power if the route could be maintained.”
Skills-based activity: “Design your route” (map + decisions)
- Choose 4 stopovers: Madeira/Azores · Cape Verde · Gulf of Guinea · Cape of Good Hope · East African coast.
- Explain 2 risks: storms, currents, lack of water, diseases.
- Explain 2 solutions: stopovers, provisions, improved ships, expert pilots.
Final product: an itinerary with arrows on a map (photo or drawing).
It combines lateen sails (maneuverability) and square sails (speed with favorable winds).
Guiding question: what matters more for exploration: technology or organization?
- Expensive spices → …
- Alternative route around Africa → …
- More navigational knowledge → …
- New territories and routes → …
Activity: Navigational instruments
Identify compass, astrolabe, and nautical charts.
Create/use an activity6. Castilian explorations and the Americas before Columbus
At the end of the 15th century, Castile embarked on the exploration of the Atlantic Ocean in search of new trade routes. This process culminated in the voyage of Christopher Columbus and the encounter with a continent that was already inhabited by numerous civilizations.
In 1492, the American continent was inhabited by many peoples, often called pre-Columbian because they lived there before Europeans arrived. Some, such as the Taíno or the Caribs, had simpler ways of life; others developed great civilizations.
Three major empires stood out: the Maya, the Aztec, and the Inca. They built cities, temples, and roads, practiced agriculture, and developed rich cultures based on religion, trade, and political power.
Christopher Columbus intended to reach Asia by sailing west. After presenting his project in Portugal without success, he gained the support of the Catholic Monarchs.
Check
- 1492: Christopher Columbus’s first voyage.
- Goal: reach Asia by a western route.
- Geographical error: lack of knowledge about the existence of the Americas.
- Americas: a continent with peoples and advanced cultures.
- Consequence: the beginning of European expansion.
7. Actividades interactivas
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